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Learn MoreDefinitions of technical terms associated with the use of ion exchange, adsorbent, catalyst and specialty resins
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Acidity
An expression of the concentration of hydrogen ions present in a solution.
Adsorbent
A synthetic resin possessing the ability to attract and to hold charged particles.
Adsorption
The attachment of charged particles to the chemically active groups on the surface and in the pores of an ion exchanger.
Affination
The mingling of raw sugar with a warm, heavy syrup, which removes the molasses coating from the sugar crystal.
Alkalinity
An expression of the total basic anions (hydroxyl groups) present in a solution. It also represents, particularly in water analysis, the bicarbonate, carbonate, and occasionally the borate, silicate, and phosphate salts which will react with water to produce the hydroxyl groups.
Amphiphilic Compound
A chemical compound possessing both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties.
Analysis
Separation and measurement of component parts.
Anion
A negatively charged ion.
Anion Interchange
The displacement of one negatively charged particle by another on an anion exchange material.
Aqueous
Using water as a solvent.
Ash
The residual mineral content of resin after incineration at 800ºC.
Attrition
The rubbing of one particle against another in a resin bed; frictional wear that will affect the size of resin particles.
Back Pressure
Pressure exerted against a flow.
Backwash
The upward flow of water through a resin bed (i.e. in at the bottom of the exchange unit, out at the top) to clean and reclassify the bed after exhaustion.
Base
The hydroxyl form of a cation or a compound that can neutralize an acid.
Base-Exchange
The property of the trading of cations shown by certain insoluble natrually occurring materials (zeolites) and developed to a high degree of specificity and efficiency in synthetic resin adsorbents.
Batch Operation
The utilization of ion exchange resins to treat a solution in a container wherein the removal of ions is accompolished by agitation of the solution and subsequent decanting of the treated liquid.
Bed
The ion exchange resin contained in a column.
Bed Depth
The height of the resinous material in the column after the exchanger has been properly conditioned for effective operation.
Bed Expansion
The effect produced during backwashing. The resin particles become separated and rise in the column. The expansion of the bed due to the increase in the space between resin particles may be controlled by regulating the backwash flow.
Bed Volumes per Hour (BV/h)
Flow rate expressed in relation to the volume of resin in the column.
Bicarbonate Alkalinity
The presence in a solution of hydroxyl (OH-) ions resulting from the hydrolysis of carbonates or bicarbonates. When these salts react with water, a strong base and a weak acid are produced and the solution is alkaline. The bicarbonate ion is the main alkaline factor in almost all water.
BOD
The amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water sample at a certain termperature over a specific time period.
Breakthrough
The first appearance in the solution flowing from an ion exchange unit of un-adsorbed ions similar to those which are depleting the activity of the resin bed. Breakthrough is an indication that regeneration of the resin is necessary.
Brine
Any solution with an extremely high concentration of salts such as sodium chloride.
Brine Decalcification
Removal of hardness in saturated brine -- usually connected to chlorine production using membranes or mercury cells.
Capacity
The ability of an ion exchange material to absorb ions. Usually expressed in kilograins per cubic foot or milliequivalents per milliliter.
Capacity, Operating
Also known as useful capacity; the number of ion exchange sites where exchange has taken place during the loading run. The portion of the total capacity utilized in practical ion exchange operation.
Capacity, Salt-Splitting
The portion of total capacity to split neutral salt; also known as "strong base" capacity.
Capacity, Total
The maximum theoretical quantity of ions that a resin can hold or the total number of exchange sites.
Carbonaceous Exchangers
Ion exchange materials of limited capacity prepared by the sulfonation of coal, lignite, peat, etc; helps to remove carbon from carbonaceous material.
Carboxylic
A term describing a specific acidic group (COOH) that contributes cation exchange ability to some resins. As defined by Merriam-Webster, a monovalent functional group or radical -COOH typical of organic acids.
Cation
A positively charged ion.
Channeling
Cleavage and furrowing of the bed due to faulty operational procedures, in which the solution being treated follows the path of least resistance, runs through these furrows, and fails to contact active groups in other parts of the bed.
Chemical Elution
The stripping of adsorbed ions from an ion exchange material by the use of solution containing other ions in relatively high concentrations; the process of extracting one material from another by washing with a solvent.
Chemical Stability
Resistance to chemical change. It is important for ion exchange resins to possess chemical stability despite contact with agressive solutions.
Chromatographic Separation
Chromatography is a physical method of separation that distributes components to separate between two phases, one stationary, and the other moving in a definite direction.
Classification
By backwash to obtain a resin bed that is graduated in resin size from coarse on the bottom to fine on the top.
Coagulation or Coalesce
To bring together small particles into a single larger mass that can be filtered or settled out.
Co-flow
A collection of related parallel flows that occur typically between two stages of a multi-stage task in a network.
Colloidal
Composed of extremely small size particles which are not removed by normal filtration. Defined by Merriam-Webster as a substance that consists of particles dispersed throughout another substance which are too small for resolution with an ordinary light microscope but are incapable of passing through a semipermeable membrane.
Color-Throw
Discoloration of the liquid passing through an ion exchange material; the flushing from the resin interstices of traces of colored organic reaction intermediates.
Column Operation
Conventional utilization of ion exchange resins in columns through which the solution to be treated passes (either upflow or downflow) through.
Condensate Polishers
Ion exchange resins being used to remove or exchange ions as well as to filter condensate for reuse in the steam cycle; resin-based ion exchange systems that are commonly used in power plant condensate systems to remove dissolved contaminants and suspended contaminants.
Conductivity
The ability of electric current to flow through water as a measure of its ion content in mhos or micromhos.
Counter-flow
The flow of a fluid in opposite directions.
Cross-contamination
Intermixing of one resin with another of opposite charge or of two water streams.
Cross-Linkage
The degree of binding of a monomer or set of monomers to form an insoluble tri-dimensional resin matrix; a side bond that links two adjacent chains of atoms in a complex molecule.
Cycle
A complete course of ion exchange operation. For instance, a complete cycle of cation exchange would involve: exhaustion of regenerated bed, backwash, regeneration and rinse to remove excess regenerant.
Day Tanks
Tanks used to hold diluted regenerant chemicals prior to being educted or pumped to the resin bed.
Deashing
The removal from solution of inorganic salts by means of adsorption by ion exchange resins of both the cations and the anions that comprise the salts. See deionization.
Degasifier or Deaerator
A system to remove dissolved gas or gases from water.
Dehydration Degradation reaction
A conversion that involves the loss of water from reacting molecule or ion. Dehydration reactions are common processes, the reverse of a hydration reaction.
Deionization
Deionization, a more general term than deashing, embraces the removal of all charged constituents or ionizable salts (both inorganic and organic) from solution. See Deashing.
Density
The weight of a given volume of exchange material, backwashed and in place in the column.
Diffusion
The state of being spread out or transmitted especially by contact. For example, ions diffusing through ion exchange resin beads.
Dissociation
The process of ionization of an electrolyte or a salt upon being dissolved in water, forming ions of cation and anion. Defined by Merriam-Webster as being the process by which a chemical combination breaks up into similar constituents.
Divinylbenzene (DVB)
A difunctional monomer used to cross-link polymers.
Downflow
Conventional direction of solutions to be processed in ion exchange column operation; in at the top, out at the bottom of the column.
Dry solids
The matter (usually expressed in weight percent) remaining after liquid removal.
Dynamic
An ion exchange reaction taking place as the water moves past ion exchange resins.
EBCT
Empty bed contact time, i.e., the hydraulic residence time in an empty bed of the same volume as the media including voids.
Eductor
A device that, by flow of water through it creating a vacuum, draws a solution into the water stream.
Efficiency
The effectiveness of the operational performance of an ion exchanger. Efficiency in the adsoprtion of ions is expressed as the quantity of regenerant required to effect the removal of a specified unit weight of adsorbed material. e.g., pounds of acid per kilograin of salt removed.
Effluent
The solution which emerges from (flows out of) an ion exchange column.
Electrodes
Conductive materials, placed in water solution, which have a positive or negative charge.
Electrolyte
A chemical compound which dissociates or ionizes in water to produce a solution which will conduct an electric current; an acid, base or salt. Defined by Merriam-Webster as a substance that when dissolved in a suitable solvent or when fused becomes an ionic conductor.
Electroneutrality
Where the positive charges equal the negative charges.
Electrophilic species
A positively charged or neutral species having vacant orbitals that are attracted to an electron rich center. It participates in a chemical reaction by accepting an electron pair in order to bond to a nucleophile.
Elution
The stripping of adsorbed ions from an ion exchange material by the use of solutions containing other ions in relatively high concentrates. More generally, the process of extracting one material from another by washing with a solvent.
End Point
A preselected value or measurement used to determine when the service cycle is completed or that a breakthrough has occurred.
Equilibrium reactions
The interaction of ionizable compounds in which the products obtained tend to revert to the substances from which they were formed until a balance is reached in which both reactants and products are present in definite ratios.
Equivalent weight
The molecular weight of any element or radical expressed as grams, pounds, etc. divided by the valence; according to Merriam-Webster, the mass of a particular substance especially in grams that combines with or is chemically equivalent to eight grams of oxygen or one gram of hydrogen.
Exchange Sites
The reactive (functional) groups of anions or cations on an ion exchange resin; situated throughout the polymer matrix.
Exchange Velocity
The rate with which one ion is displaced from an exchanger in favor of another.
Exhaustion
The state in which resin is no longer capable of useful ion exchange; the depletion of the exchanger's supply of available ions. The exhaustion point is determined arbitrarily in terms of:
(a) a value in parts per million of ions in the effluent solution
(b) the reduction in quality of the effluent water determined by a conductivity bridge which measures the electrical resistance to water.
Exotherm
Giving off heat in a reaction or solution of a substance.
Extrapolation
Extending information beyond the point where proven data is available.
Fines
Extremely small particles of ion exchange materials.
Flocculants
Materials that can form gelatinous clouds of precipitate to enclose fine particles of suspended dirt to settle them from the water.
Flow Rate
The volume of solution passing through a given quantity of resin within a given time. Usually expressed in terms of gallons per minute per cubic foot of resin, as milliliters per minute per milliliter of resin, or as gallons per square foot of resin per minute. The volume of solution passing through a given quantity of resin within a given time. Usually expressed in terms of gallons per minute per cubic foot of resin, as milliliters per minute per milliliter of resin, or as gallons per square foot of resin per minute.
FMA
The free mineral acidity, or sum of the mineral acids.
Forced-draft degasifier
A tower in which water droplets descend through a flow of air blown upwards to remove gases such as carbon dioxide.
Fouling
The accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces to the detriment of function. The fouling materials can consist of either living organisms or a non-living substance. Failing to clean a fouled resin will result in a significantly shorter resin life.
Free base
A regenerated form of a weakly basic anion resin.
Freeboard
The space provided above the resin bed in an ion exchange column to allow for expansion of the bed during backwashing.
GAC
Granular activated carbon.
Gel
Ion exchange resins that are made up of firm gel structure in a solid bead form, allowing for the diffusion of ions through the gel.
Grain
A unit of mass, 0.0648 grams; typically used to measure the hardness of water.
Grains per Gallon
An expression of concentration of material in a solution, generally in terms of calcium carbonate; a unit of water hardness. One grain (as calcium carbonate) per gallon is equivalent to 17.1 parts per million. One grain per US gallon is equivalent to 0.017118061 kg/m3
Gram-Milliequivalents
The equivalent weight in grams, divided by 1000.
Granular Activated Carbon Adsorption
The activated carbon being retained on a 50-mesh sieve. Activated carbon is an effective adsorbent because it is a highly porous material and provides a large surface area to which contaminants may adsorb.
Gravimetric
Measurement by weight.
Ground Remediation
Purification of water from a ground source, usually contaminated with metals etc. which need to be reduced.
Hardness
The scale-forming and lather-inhibiting qualities which water, high in calcium and magnesium ions, possesses. Temporary hardness, caused by the presence of magnesium or calcium bicarbonate, is so called because it may be removed by boiling the water to convert the bicarbonates to insoluble carbonates. Calcium Sulfate, Magnesium sulfate, and the chlorides of these two metals cause permanent hardness.
Hardness as calcium carbonate
The expression ascribed to the value obtained when the hardness forming salts are calculated in terms of equivalent quantities of calcium carbonate, a convenient method of reducing all salts to a common basis for comparison.
Headloss
The reduction in liquid pressure associated with the passage of a solution through a bed of exchange material; a measure of the resistance of a resin bed to the flow of the liquid passing through it.
Hydraulic Classification
The rearrangement of resin particles in an ion exchange unit. As the backwash water flows up through the resin bed, the particles are placed in a mobile condition wherein the larger particles settle and the smaller particles rise to the top of the bed. Defined in Merriam-Webster as the sorting of small particles by allowing them to settle against rising currents of fresh water of different velocities.
Hydrogen Cycle
A complete course of cation exchange operation in which the adsorbent is employed in the hydrogen or free acid form.
Hydrolysis
The splitting of a salt and water into its ions and formation of a weak acid or base, or both. As in ion exchange:
R-NH4+OH-R-H+ + NH4+OH- where R- is a WAC resin.
Hydrometer
A device to measure specific gravity of fluids.
Hydroxyl
The term used to describe the anionic radical (OH-), which is responsible for the alkalinity of a solution and is present in alcohols and many other organic compounds.
Hydroxymethylfurfural, HMF
An organic compound formed by the dehydration of certain sugars. 5 (hydroxymethyl) -2-furaldehyde, is a precursor of the coloring matter from decomposition of glucose and also thereby assisting in the color development in sugars. HMF is produced during contact with strong acid cation resins in the H+ form at elevated temperatures.
Inert Media
A resin with no reactive groups.
Influent
The solution which enters (flows into) an ion exchange unit.
Interstitial Spaces
A compound that is formed when an atom of sufficiently small radius sits in an interstitial "hole" in a metal lattice. The smaller atoms become trapped in the spaces between the atoms in the crystal matrix, called the interstices.
Ion
An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
Ion Exchange
The interchange of one ion in solution with another ion on an insoluble material.
Ionization
The process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons, often in conjunction with other chemical changes.
Ionization constant
An expression in absolute units of the extent of dissociation into ions of a chemical compound in solution; the equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction known as dissociation in the context of acid-base reactions.
Also known as the dissociation constant, the ionization constant uses the symbol K to describe the equilibrium between ions and molecules that are not ionized in a solution or liquid.
Kieselguhr Filtration
A filtration method in which diatomaceous earth is applied to precoat a mesh screen prior to each filter run. This method is most effective in water treatment. Effluent water quality of DE filtration depends on influent water quality and quality (or grade) of DE used.
Kieselguhr (aka Diatomasceous earth) is a nonmetallic material or powder made of desiccated diatom material; used as a filtering agent, adsorbet, and abrasive in many chemical operations.
Kilograin
A unit of weight; one thousand grains.
Kinetics
The effects of forces on the motion of matter, of concern with the velocity or speed of reactions.
layered bed
An ion exchange column with two different resins on top of each other, with a regenerant collector between them.
lead lag
When two vessels are used in series to achieve better quality and to maximize loading on a lead column (usually used in special applications).
lead lag merry-go-round
When operating lead lag having a third vessel in regeneration or on standby; when the column is fully exhausted and goes into regeneration, the lag column becomes the lead and the column in standby becomes the polisher.
leakage
The phenomenon in which some of the influent ions are not adsorbed or exchanged and appear in the effluent when a solution is passed through an under-regenerated exchange resin bed.
london forces
A temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles. It is the weakest intermolecular force.
macroporous
Resins that have a rigid polymer porous network in which there exists a true pore structure even after drying. The pores are larger than atomic distances and are not part of the gel structure.
massecuite
A dense mass of sugar crystals mixed with mother liquor obtained by evaporation.
MCL
Maximum contaminant level.
mingler
A slurry mixer used to commingle raw sugar and affination syrup to begin the process of transforming cane sugar into refined granulated product. Retention time and intense mixing are critical at this stage.
mixed bed
A method of filling a testing column, involving two resins intermingling with each other.
Moisture Content
The water loss of a fully hydrated resin under controlled drying conditions.
Molecular Weight
The relative weight of a molecule on a scale where oxygen has a given weight of 16.
Molecule
The smallest particle of an element or compound retaining its characteristics.
monomer
A single reactive molecule capable of combining with another different monomer to form a polymer. Where two different monomers combine the resulting polymer is called a polymer.
MTZ
Mass Transfer Zone.
negative charge
The electrical potential which an atom acquires when it gains one or more electrons; a characteristic of an anion.
packed bed
A method of filling a testing column such that the resin to be tested remains between 2 plates; an upper distributor and an underdrain (packing support).
permanent hardness
Hardness due to the prescence of minerals such as: chlorides, nitrates, and sulphates of calcium and magnesium, which will not be precipitated by boiling.
PH
An expression of the acidity of a solution; the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration (pH I very acidic; pH 14, very basic; pH 7, neutral).
physical stability
The quality which an ion exchange resin must possess to resist changes that might be caused by attrition, high temperatures, and other physical conditions.
Porosity
An expression of the degree of permeability in ion exchange resins to liquids and large organic molecules. Gel resins, even when referred to as highly porous, have a negligible porosity in comparison to the macropores inherent in the macroporous resins. Porosity is also defined as the ration of the volume of interstices of a material to the volume of its mass.
positive charge
The electrical potential acquired by an atom which has lost one or more electrons; a characteristic of a cation.
Potable water
Water suitable for drinking.
quaternary amine
A cationic amine salt in which the nitrogen atom has four groups bonded to it and carries a positive charge. They are used as oil-wetting agents, corrosion and shale inhibitors and bactericides.
quaternary ammonium
A specific basic group [-N(CH3)3+] on which depends the exchange activity of certain anion exchange resins. Any of numerous strong bases and their salts derived from ammonium by replacement of the hydrogen atoms with organic radicals.
raw water
Untreated water from wells, lakes, rivers, or from surface sources; natural minerals, ions, particles, bacteria, and parasites have not been removed.
regenerant
A chemical compound solution used in the restoration of ion exchange system capacity. Acids are employed to restore a cation exchanger to its hydrogen form; brine solutions may be used to convert the cation exchanger to the sodium form. The anion exchanger may be rejuvenated by treatment with an alkaline solution.
Regeneration
A chemical compound solution used in the restoration of ion exchange system capacity. Acids are employed to restore a cation exchanger to its hydrogen form; brine solutions may be used to convert the cation exchanger to the sodium form. The anion exchanger may be rejuvenated by treatment with an alkaline solution.
Rinse
The operation which follows regeneration; a flushing out of excess regenerant solution.
SAC
Strongly acidic cation (resin).
Salt-splitting
The conversion of salts to their corresponding acids or bases by passage through ion exchange resins containing strongly acidic or strongly basic functional groups.
Saturated
The maximum amount of a substance that can be put into solution (maximum capacity).
SBA
Strongly Basic Anion (resin).
selectivity
The difference in attraction of one ion over another by an ion exchange resin. Ion exchange media have a greater affinity for certain ionic species than for others and are preferentially sorbed.
Sequential
One action occurring followed by others in a given order, as opposed to simultaneous actions.
Siliceous Gel Zeolite
A synthetic, inorganic exchanger produced by the aqueous reaction of alkali with aluminum salts.
Softening
The process of replacing hardness with sodium by cation exchange.
Space Velocity
The flow per unit volume of resin, or gpm/ft3.
Specific Gravity
The ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of water at a fixed temperature.
Specific Resistance
The resistance between opposite faces of a one-centimeter cube of a given substance and expressed as ohm-cm3.
Spectrophotometer
An apparatus for measuring the intensity of light in a part of the spectrum, especially as transmitted or emitted by particular substances. In the case of ion exchange resins, it is used to measure how much a chemical substance absorbs light by measuring the intensity of light as a beam of light passes through sample solution.
Sphericity
Relating to the spherical nature and whole bead content of a resin; the measure of how closely the shape of an object approaches tha of a mathematically perfect sphere.
Static
An ion exchange reaction occurring with a volume of liquid in continuous contact with a volume of resin.
Strainer
A slotted or screened sieve to filter a flowing stream of water.
Stoichiometric
Relating to or denoting quantities of reactants in simple integral ratios, as prescribed by an equation or formula.
Strong Electrolyte Resin
The equivalent of strongly acidic or strongly basic resins and capable of splitting neutral salts. They're good conductors of electric current in a solution.
Sulfonic Acid
A specific strong base acidic group (S03H) on which depends the exchange activity of certain cation exchange resins. They're frequently used as catalysts and for ion exchange.
Superficial Linear Velocity
Flow of water per unit of area, or gpm/ft2.
Supersaturated
To contain more in solution than is normal for a given temperature.
Support Media
A graded-particle-size, high-density material such as gravel, anthrafil or quartz used to support the resin bed.
Swelling
The expansion of an ion exchange bed which occurs when reactive groups on the resin are converted into certain forms. The amount of swelling partially depends on the elasticity of the resin.
Tangential Filtration
A process where the feed stream flows parallel to the membrane face. Applied pressure causes one portion of the flow stream to pass through the membrane while the remainder is recirculated back to the feed reservoir. Particles smaller than the pore size are pushed out through the filrate.
TDS
Total Dissolved Solids TDS = TS - TSS.
Temporary Hardness
The hardness present in a water associated with the bicarbonate (alkalinity) and usually expressed in mg/l or ppm as CaCO3 or in meq/l.
Throughfare Regeneration
When regenerant is used on two vessels in series in one operation. For example, in a demin plant cation - anion - polishing cation, where the acid used to regenerate the main cation goes through the small polishing cation first (giving it in effect a free regeneration).
throughput
The amount of solution treated prior to the exhaustion of the ion exchange resin; the amount of material or items passing through a system or process.
throughput volume
The amount of solution passed through an exchange bed before exhaustion of the resin.
Titrate
To determine the amount of a substance in solution by adding a measured amount of another substance to produce a desired reaction or endpoint.
TMA
Total Mineral Acidity or anions.
TOC
Total Organic Carbon.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
All the dissolved salts present in a feed supply.
Train
A single ion exchange system, such as SAC and SBA, capable of producing the treated water desired, with multiple trains being duplicates of the single system.
TSS
Total Suspended Solids. TSS = TS - TDS.
UF
Ultrafiltration or uncertainty factor.
Ultra-Filtration Membrane
A variety of membrane filtration in which forces like pressure or concentration gradients lead to a separation through a semipermeable membrane. Typically, these membranes will remove high molecular-weight substances, colloidal materials, and organic and inorganic polymeric molecules.
Ultrasonic Bath
Uses high-frequency, high-intensity sound waves in a liquid to facilitate or enhance the removal of foreign contaminants from surfaces submerged in an ultrasonically activated liquid.
Upflow
The operation of an ion exchange unit in which solutions are passed in at the bottom and out at the top of a container.
UV
Ultraviolet
Vacuum Degasifier
A tower to which a vacuum is applied and through which water droplets descend to remove dissolved gases.
Valence
The combining power of an element, as measured by the number of hydrogen atoms it can displace or combine with.
Viscosity
The state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency due to internal friction.
VOC
Volatile Organic Contaminant.
Void Volume
The space between particles of ion exchange resin in a settled bed, also called interstitial volume. Also used in ion exchange chromatography.
WAC
Weak Acid Cation. Refers to a cation exchange resin typically with carboxylic acid functionality.
Wastewater
The unrecycled portion of the water used in the backwash, regeneration and rinse cycles.
Water Hammer
Instantaneous surges of water pressure caused by sudden interruptions in water flow in pipe or tank systems.
Water Jacket
A water-filled casing surrounding a device, typically a metal sheath having intake and outlet vents to allow water to be pumped through and circulated.
Water Softening
To exchange sodium for the hardness in water by ion exchange.
WBA
Weak Base Anion. Refers to an anion exchange resin with primary, secondary or tertiary amine functionality.
Weak Electrolyte
An electrolyte that gives a low percentage yield of ions when dissolved in water.
Zeolite
A microporous, aluminosilicate mineral typically used as an ion-exchange bed in domestic and commercial water purification and softening. They have also been used as catalysts and sorbents.
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